Important update: Healthcare facilities
CDC has updated select ways to operate healthcare systems effectively in response to COVID-19 vaccination.
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Recommendations for Fully Vaccinated People
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UPDATE
Given new evidence on the B.1.617.2 (Delta) variant, CDC has updated the guidance for fully vaccinated people. CDC recommends universal indoor masking for all teachers, staff, students, and visitors to K-12 schools, regardless of vaccination status. Children should return to full-time in-person learning in the fall with layered prevention strategies in place.
UPDATE
The White House announced that vaccines will be required for international travelers coming into the United States, with an effective date of November 8, 2021. For purposes of entry into the United States, vaccines accepted will include FDA approved or authorized and WHO Emergency Use Listing vaccines. More information is available here.
UPDATE
Travel requirements to enter the United States are changing, starting November 8, 2021. More information is available here.
Publications about COVID-19 for Laboratories
Publications about COVID-19 for Laboratories
On This Page
Diagnostics
Antigen-based
- Brihn, A; Chang, J; O. Yong K; Balter, S; et al. Diagnostic Performance of an Antigen Test with RT-PCR for the Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in a Hospital Setting – Los Angeles County, California, June-August 2020external icon. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2021, May 14 (70)19:702-706.
- Chapman, AP; Tang, X.; Lee, JR; Chida, A; Mercer, K; et al. Rapid development of neutralizing and diagnostic SARS-COV-2 mouse monoclonal antibodiesexternal icon. Sci Rep 2021, May 6;(1):9682.
- James AE, Gulley T, Kothari A, Holder K, er al. Performance of the BinaxNOW coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) Antigen Card test relative to the severe acute respiratory coronavirus virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) assay among symptomatic and asymptomatic healthcare employeesexternal icon. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2021 Jan:1-3.
- Moreno, G. K.; Braun, K. M.; Pray, I. W.; SARS-CoV-2 transmission in intercollegiate athletics not fully mitigated with daily antigen testingexternal icon. Clin Infect Dis. 2001, May 12; ciab343. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciab343.
- Pray, I. W.; Ford, L.; Cole, D.; et al. Performance of an antigen-based test for asymptomatic and symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 testing at two university campuses – Wisconsin, September-October 2020external icon. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2021 Jan 1;69(5152):1642-1647.
- Shah, M. M.; Salvatore, P. P. et al. Performance of Repeat BinaxNOW Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Antigen Testing in a Community Setting, Wisconsin, November 2020-December 2020.external icon Clin Infect Dis. 2021 July 15; (73); S54-s57.
- Pollock, N. R.; Tran, K.; Jacobs, J. R. et al. Performance and Operational Evaluation of the Access Bio CareStart Rapid Antigen Test in a High-Throughput Drive-Through Community Testing Site in Massachusettsexternal icon. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2021 May 26;8(7).
- Ige, F.; Hamada, Y.; Steinhardt, L.; et al. Validation of commercial SARS-CoV-2 immunoassays in a Nigerian population.external icon Microbiol Spectrum. 2021 Oct.6; doi: 10.1128/Spectrum.00680-21; e0068021
- Ford, L.; Lee, C.; Pray, I. W.; et al. Epidemiologic characteristics associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) antigen-based test results, real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) cycle threshold values, subgenomic RNA, and viral culture results from university testing.external icon Clin Infect Dis. 2021 Sept. 15. Doi: 10.1093/cid/ciab303; 73(6) e1348-e1355
- Schulte PA, Piacentino JD, Weissman DN, et al. Proposed Framework for Considering SARS-CoV-2 Antigen Testing of Unexposed Asymptomatic Workers in Selected Workplacesexternal icon. J Occup Environ Med. 2021 May.
Genetic-based (i.e.,Nucleic Acid Amplification Test (NAAT))
- Kandetu, T. B.; Dziuban, E. J.; Sikuvi, K.; et al. Persistence of positive RT-PCR results for over 70 days in two travelers with COVID-19external icon. Disaster Med Public Health Prep 2020 Nov 19;1-2Patel MR, Carroll D, Ussery E, et al. Performance of oropharyngeal swab testing compared to nasopharyngeal swab testing for diagnosis of COVID-19 -United States, January-February 2020external icon. Clin Infect Dis. 2020 Jun 16;ciaa759.
- Bushman D, Alroy KA, Greene SK, et al. Detection and genetic characterization of community-based SARS-CoV-2 infections—New York City, March 2020external iconexternal icon. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020 Jul 17;69(28):918-922.
- Patel MR, Carroll D, Ussery E, et al. Performance of oropharyngeal swab testing compared to nasopharyngeal swab testing for diagnosis of COVID-19 -United States, January-February 2020external icon. Clin Infect Dis. 2020 Jun 16;ciaa759.
Serological
- Akinbami, L. J.; Petersen, L. R.; Sami, S.; et al. COVID-19 symptoms and SARS-CoV-2 antibody positivity in a large survey of first responders and healthcare personnel, May-July 2020external icon. Clin Infec Dis. 2021 Jan 30. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciab080. Online ahead of print.
- Biggs HM, Harris JB, Breakwell L; et al. Estimated community seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies—Two Georgia counties, April 28-May 3, 2020external icon. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020 Jul 24;69(29):965-970.
- Havers FP, Reed C, Lim T, et al. Seroprevalence of antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 in 10 sites in the United States, March 23-May 12, 2020external icon. JAMA Intern Med. 2020 Jul 21. doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.4130. Online ahead of print.
- Payne DC, Smith-Jeffcoat SE, owak G, et al. SARS-CoV-2 infections and serologic responses from a sample of U.S. Navy Service members – USS Theodore Roosevelt, April 2020external icon. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020 Jun 12;69(23):714-721.
- Self WH, Tenforde MW, Stubblefield WB, et al. Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 among frontline health care personnel in a multistate hospital network – 13 Academic Medical Centers, April-June 2020external icon. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020 Sep 4;69(35):1221-1226.
- Stubblefield WB, Talbot HK, Feldstein LR, et al. Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 among frontline healthcare personnel during the first month of caring for COVID-19 patients – Nashville, Tennesseeexternal icon. Clin Infect Dis. 2020 Jul 6;ciaa936.
- Stubblefield, WB; Talbot, HK; Feldstein, LR; et al. Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 Among Frontline Healthcare Personnel During the First Month of Caring for Patients With COVID-19-Nashville, Tennesseeexternal icon. Clin Infect Dis. 2021, May 4;72(9):1645-1648.
Sampling/Collection Methods
- English, K.; Lei, U.; Shipman-Amuwo, F.; et al. Community-Based Testing for SARS-CoV-2 – Chicago, Illinois, May-November 2020external icon. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2021 May 14; 70(19):701-711.
- Flannery, B.; Meece, J. K.; Williams, J. V.; et al. Systematic Testing for Influenza and Coronavirus Disease 2019 Among Patients With Respiratory Illnessexternal icon. Clin Infect Dis. 2021 May 4;72(9): e426-e428.
- Salvatore PP, Bhattacharyya S, Christensen K, et al. Reduced sensitivity of SARS-CoV-2 PCR testing with single-nostril nasal swabs.external icon J Clin Virol. 2021 Jun;140:104852.
- Schulte, P. A.; Weissman, D. N.; Luckhaupt, S. E.; et al. Considerations for pooled testing of employees for SARS-CoV-2external icon. J Occup Environ Med 2021 Jan 1;63(1):1-9.
- Lane MA, Brownsword EA, Morgan JS, et al. Bioaerosol sampling of a ventilated patient with COVID-19external icon. Am J Infect Control. 2020 Aug 4;S0196-6553(20)30760-4.
- Đỗ, T. H.; Nguyễn, V. T.; Đinh, T.; et al. Environmental sampling for SARS-CoV-2 at a reference laboratory and provincial hospital in central Vietnam, 2020.external icon Western Pac Surveill Response J. 2021 Jul-Sept. 12(3); 47-55; DOI: 10.5365/wpsar.2020.11.4.002
- Grijalva, C. G.; Rolfes, M.; Zhu, Y.; et al. Performance of self-collected anterior nasal swabs and saliva specimens for detection of SARS-CoV-2 during symptomatic and asymptomatic periods.external icon Open Forum Infect Dis; 2021 Nov.8(11);ofab484;DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofab484
- Sahni, L. C.; Avadhanula, V.; Ortiz, C. S.; Feliz, K. E.; John, R. E.; Brown, C. A.; Lively, J. Y.; Rha, B.; Munoz, F. M.; Piedra, P. A.; Dunn, J. J.; Boom, J. A. Comparison of Mid-Turbinate and Nasopharyngeal Specimens for Molecular Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Among Symptomatic Outpatients at a Pediatric Drive-Through Testing Siteexternal icon. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2021 Jun 26; doi: 10.1093.
Epidemiology
- Bushman D, Alroy KA, Greene SK, et al. Detection and genetic characterization of community-based SARS-CoV-2 infections—New York City, March 2020external icon. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020 Jul 17;69(28):918-922.
- Chung E, Chow EJ, Wilcox NC, et al. Comparison of Symptoms and RNA Levels in Children and Adults With SARS-CoV-2 Infection in the Community Setting.external icon. JAMA Pediatr. 2021 Jun.
- Dawson, P; Worrell, MC; Malone, S; et al. Pilot Investigation of SARS-CoV-2 Secondary Transmission in Kindergarten Through Grade 12 Schools Implementing Mitigation Strategies – St. Louis County and City of Springfield, Missouri, December 2020. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2021 Mar 26; 70(12):449-455.
- Guagliardo, S. A. J.; Prasad, P. V.; Rodriguez, A.; et al. Cruise ship travel in the era of COVID-19: A summary of outbreaks and a model of public health interventionsexternal icon. Clin Infect Dis. 2021 May 12; ciab433. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciab433. Online ahead of print.
- Hakim, A. J.; Victory, K. R.; Chevinsky, J. R.; Mitigation policies, community mobility, and COVID-19 case counts in Australia, Japan, Hong Kong, and Singaporeexternal icon. Public Health. 2021 Feb 12;194:238-244.
- Hamer, SA; Ghai, RR; Zecca, I. B; et al. SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.7 variant of concern detected in a pet dog and cat after exposure to a person with COVID-19, USAexternal icon. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2021, May 6; doi: 10.1111/tbed.14122. Online ahead of print.
- Hershow, RB; Wu, K; Lewis, NM; et. al. Low SARS-CoV-2 Transmission in Elementary Schools – Salt Lake County, Utah, December 3, 2020-January 31, 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2021 Mar 26; 70(12):442-448.
- Howard-Anderson, J.; Adams, C.; Sherman, A; et al. Occupational risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 infection among healthcare personnel: A cross-sectional analysis of subjects enrolled in the COPE Studyexternal icon. JAMA Intern Med 2021 Feb 9; 1-20.
- Barrios, L. C.; Green, R. F.; Honein, M. A. The role of testing in reducing SARS-CoV-2 transmission on college campusesexternal icon. J Adolesc Health 2021 Jan;68(1):1-2.
- Romero, L.; Pao, L. Z.; Clark, H.; et al. Health center testing for SARS-CoV-2 during the COVID-19 pandemic – United States, June 5-October 2, 2020external icon. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2020 Dec 18;69(50):1895-1901.
- Hobbs, C. V.; Martin, L. M.; Kim, S. S.; et al. Factors associated with positive SARS-CoV-2 test results in outpatient health facilities and emergency departments among children and adolescents aged <18 years – Mississippi, September-November 2020external icon. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2020 Dec 18;69(50):1925-1929.
- Schrodt, CA; Malenfant, JH; Hunter, JC; et al. Investigation of a Suspect SARS-CoV-2 and Influenza A Mixed Outbreak: Lessons Learned for Long-Term Care Facilities Nationwideexternal icon. Clin Infect Dis. 2021 May 6; doi: 10.1093/cid/ciab372. Online ahead of print.
- Lutrick K, Ellingson KD, Baccam Z, et al. COVID-19 Infection, Reinfection, and Vaccine Effectiveness in a Prospective Cohort of Arizona Frontline/Essential Workers: The AZ HEROES Research Protocolexternal icon. JMIR Res Protoc. 2021 May.
- Salvatore PP, Dawson P, Wadhwa A, et al. Epidemiological Correlates of Polymerase Chain Reaction Cycle Threshold Values in the Detection of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).external icon Clin Infect Dis. 2021 Jun;72(11):e761-e7.
- Holden TM, Richardson RAK, Arevalo P, et al. Geographic and demographic heterogeneity of SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic testing in Illinois, USA, March to December 2020external icon.. BMC Public Health. 2021 Jun;21(1):1105.
Research
- Wang L, Fan X, Bonenfant G, et al. Susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 of Cell Lines and Substrates Commonly Used to Diagnose and Isolate Influenza and Other Viruses.external icon Emerg Infect Dis. 2021 May;27(5):1380-92.
- Lendvay TS, Chen J, Harcourt BH, et al. Addressing personal protective equipment (PPE) decontamination: Methylene blue and light inactivates severe acute respiratory coronavirus virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) on N95 respirators and medical masks with maintenance of integrity and fit.external icon Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2021 May:1-10.
- Lindsley WG, Blachere FM, Beezhold DH, et al. A comparison of performance metrics for cloth face masks as source control devices for simulated cough and exhalation aerosols.external icon medRxiv. 2021 Feb. Preprint
- Paul P, France AM, Aoki Y, et al. Genomic Surveillance for SARS-CoV-2 Variants Circulating in the United States, December 2020-May 2021external icon. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021 Jun;70(23):846-50.
Clinical
- CDC COVID-19 Vaccine Breakthrough Case Investigations Team. COVID-19 Vaccine Breakthrough Infections Reported to CDC – United States, January 1-April 30, 2021.external icon MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report vol. 70,21 792-793. 28 May. 2021, doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm7021e3.
- COVID-19 Investigation Team. Clinical and virologic characteristics of the first 12 patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the United Statesexternal icon. Nat Med. 2020 Jun;26(6):861-868. Epub 2020 Apr 23
- Miller SE, Goldsmith CS. Caution in identifying coronaviruses by electron microscopyexternal icon. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2020 Sep;31(9):2223-2224.
- Goldsmith GS, Miller SE, Martines RB, et al. Electron microscopy of SARS-CoV-2: a challenging taskexternal icon. Lancet. 2020 May 30;395(10238):e99.
- Harcourt J, Tamin A, Lu X , et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 from patient with 2019 novel coronavirus disease, United Statesexternal icon. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020 Jun;26(6):1266-1273.
- Ko, JY; DeSisto, CL; Simeone, RM; Adverse pregnancy outcomes, maternal complications, and severe illness among U.S. delivery hospitalizations with and without a COVID-19 diagnosisexternal icon. Clin Infect Dis. 2021 May 12;ciab344. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciab344. Online ahead of print.
Coronavirus Pathogenesis
- Bhatnagar, J.; Gary, J.; Reagan-Steiner, S.; et al. Evidence of SARS-CoV-2 replication and tropism in the lungs, airways and vascular endothelium of patients with fatal COVID-19: An autopsy case-seriesexternal icon. J Infect Dis. 2021 Jan 27;jiab039. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jiab039. Online ahead of print.
- Martines RB, Ritter JM, Matkovic E, et al. Pathology and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 associated with fatal Coronavirus disease, United Statesexternal icon. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020 Sep;26(9):2005-2015.
- Belser JA. Assessment of SARS-CoV-2 replication in the context of other respiratory virusesexternal icon. Lancet Respir Med. 2020 Jul;8(7):651-652.
Serology
- Camerini D, Randall AZ, Trappl-Kimmons K, et al. Mapping SARS-CoV-2 Antibody Epitopes in COVID-19 Patients with a Multi-Coronavirus Protein Microarrayexternal icon. bioRxiv. Preprint. 2021 Jan.
- Freeman B, Lester S, Mills L, et al. Validation of a SARS-CoV-2 spike protein ELISA for use in contact investigations and serosurveillanceexternal icon. bioRxiv. Preprint. 2020 Apr 25;2020.04.24.057323.
- Voss WN, Hou YJ, Johnson NV, et al. Prevalent, protective, and convergent IgG recognition of SARS-CoV-2 non-RBD spike epitopesexternal icon. Science. 2021;372(6546):1108-12.
Virology
- Ackerman CM, Myhrvold C, Thakku SG, et al. Massively multiplexed nucleic acid detection with Cas13external icon. Nature. 2020 Jun;582(7811):277-282.
- Hamer SA, Pauvolid-Correa A, Zecca IB, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Infections and Viral Isolations among Serially Tested Cats and Dogs in Households with Infected Owners in Texas, USAexternal icon. Viruses. 2021 May;13(5).
- Lutgring JD, Tobolowsky FA, Hatfield KM, et al. Evaluating the Presence of Replication-Competent SARS-CoV-2 from Nursing Home Residents with Persistently Positive RT-PCR Results.external icon Clin Infect Dis. 2021 May. Online ahead of print.
- Lindsley WG. Blachère FM, Burton NC, et al. COVID-19 and the workplace: Research questions for the aerosol science community (Editorial)(Open Access)external icon. Aerosol Science and Technology. Volume 54, Issue 10, 2 October 2020, Pages 1117-1123.
- van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Morris, D, et al. Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with SARS-CoV-1external icon. N Engl J Med. 2020 April 16;382(16), 1564-1567.
- Whitworth C, Mu Y, Houston H, et al. Persistence of bacteriophage Phi 6 on porous and nonporous surfaces and the potential for its use as an Ebola virus or Coronavirus surrogateexternal icon. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2020 Aug 18;86(17):e01482-20.
Serology
- Bajema, K. L.; Dahlgren, F. S.; Lim, T. W.; et al. Comparison of estimated SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence through commercial laboratory residual sera testing and a community surveyexternal icon. Clin Infect Dis 2020 Dec 10;ciaa1804. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa1804. Online ahead of print.
- Basavaraju, S. V.; Patton, M. E.; Grimm, K.; et al. Serologic testing of U.S. blood donations to identify SARS-CoV-2-reactive antibodies: December 2019-January 2020external icon. Clin Infect Dis 2020 Nov 30;ciaa1785. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa1785. Online ahead of print.
- Self WH, Tenforde MW, Stubblefield WB, et al. Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 among frontline health care personnel in a multistate hospital network – 13 Academic Medical Centers, April-June 2020external icon. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020 Sep 4;69(35):1221-1226.
- Biggs HM, Harris JB, Breakwell Let al. Estimated community seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies—Two Georgia counties, April 28-May 3, 2020external icon. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020 Jul 24;69(29):965-970.
- Havers FP, Reed C, Lim T, et al. Seroprevalence of antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 in 10 sites in the United States, March 23-May 12, 2020external icon. JAMA Intern Med. 2020 Jul 21. doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.4130. Online ahead of print.
- Stubblefield WB, Talbot HK, Feldstein L, et al. Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 among frontline healthcare personnel during the first month of caring for COVID-19 patients – Nashville, Tennesseeexternal icon. Clin Infect Dis. 2020 Jul 6;ciaa936.
- Payne DC, Smith-Jeffcoat SE, owak G, et al. SARS-CoV-2 infections and serologic responses from a sample of U.S. Navy Service members – USS Theodore Roosevelt, April 2020external icon. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2020 Jun 12;69(23):714-721.
- Parrott, J. C.; Maleki, A. N. et al. Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies in New York City Adults, June-October 2020: A Population-Based Surveyexternal icon. J Infect Dis. 2021 Jul 15; 224 (2): 188-195.
Treatment
Antivirals
- Batool, H.; Batool, S.; Mahmood, M. S.; et al. Prediction of putative epitope-based vaccine against all corona virus strains for the Chinese population: Approach toward development of vaccineexternal icon. Microbiol Immunol. 2021 Apr;64(4):154-160.
- Sheahan T, Sims A, Zhou S, et al. An orally bioavailable broad-spectrum antiviral inhibits SARS-CoV-2 in human airway epithelial cell cultures and multiple coronaviruses in miceexternal icon. Sci Transl Med. 2020 Apr 29;12(541):eabb5883.
Molecular Epidemiology
- Umair, M; Ikram, A; Salman, M; et al. Whole-genome sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 reveals the detection of G614 variant in Pakistanexternal icon. PLOS One. 2021 Mar 23;16(3):e0248371.
- Galloway SE, Paul P, MacCannell DR, et al. Emergence of SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.7 Lineage — United States, December 29, 2020–January 12, 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. ePub: 15 January 2021.
- Deng X, GuW Federman S, et al. Genomic surveillance reveals multiple introductions of SARS-CoV-2 into Northern Californiaexternal icon. Science. 2020 Jul 31;369(6503):582-587.
- Black A, MacCannell DR, Sibley TR, et al. Ten recommendations for supporting open pathogen genomic analysis in public healthexternal icon. Nat Med. 2020 Jun;26(6):832-841.
- Ghinai I, McPherson T, Hunter J, et al. First known person-to-person transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SAR-CoV-2) in the USAexternal icon. The Lancet. 2020 Apr 4;395(10230):1137-1144.
Variants
- Konings, F.; Perkins, M. D. et al. SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Interest and Concern naming scheme conducive for global discourseexternal icon. Nat Microbiol. 2021 Jul;6(7):821-823.
- Galloway SE, Paul P, MacCannell DR, et al. Emergence of SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.7 Lineage — United States, December 29, 2020–January 12, 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. ePub: 15 January 2021.
- SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.529 (Omicron) Variant — United States, December 1–8, 2021. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2021;70:1731-1734. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7050e1
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